Research Paper on Decision Making

What makes a decision ethical? How do the influences affect our decision-making processes? Who are the influences? What should they be? Where do ethics and morals come into play? Webster's (1982) defines ethical as "involving or expressing moral approval or disapproval; conforming to accepted professional standards of conduct". This research paper on Decision Making will discuss what ethics in decision-making there are, what the ground rules are, if any, and the elements of an ethically defensible decision. A person who is ethical is concerned with doing the right thing. When making a decision one should apply ethics to weigh the value or magnitude of impact. Often at times this can be challenging because there are so many influences that affect ones decisions. Ambiguity can play a big part in the circumstances, details, stakeholders, and morals in which decisions are made.

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Organizations usually have a universal standard of values such as a mission statement or a vision/ value statement that is accepted above or beyond the scope of a company's policies and procedures this serves as a guideline for ethical principals. In 1996 the Ethics Resource Center developed a simple acronym ethics filters to be used in decision-making. The acronym is PLUS which, stands for Policies, Legal, Universal, and self. This provided organizational hierarchy for all employees with the same ground rules. This also provided a way to filter decisions through basic ethical and moral tests. In another example of applied ground rules, nurses have long since been ethically challenged in their profession. Noureddine, S. (2000) states, "when faced with an ethical dilemma, nurses use formula ethics, where ethical principles are applied to a specific case to determine what one ought to do." Decisions will need to be re-evaluated or reworked based on ones personal or company's ethical ground rules. However, urgency is usually a deciding factor of influence on ones decision-making process. This often limits the information on which to base a problem, which limits alternative solutions. The amount of options or alternatives is especially important when using ethical based filters. A red flag of ethical questions is raised on a daily bases to each and every one of us both personally and professionally.

In ones profession he/she may or may not be in a position that requires them to make a decision that will have a huge impact on ethical decisions. Lets use the example of a recent corporate scandal such as Enron a company that was falsifying accounting records. In this organization choices were made to put aside the potential public risk and public trust in exchange for profits with out regard for their primary stakeholders which, where the employees who were basically screwed by their employer. The only basis for this decision must have been money over risk.

It will take years for the stakeholders in this company to recover, if that is even possible. Was the decision to falsify accounting records premeditated or was it a result of a smaller decision gone wrong? The only way we will ever know is through an investigation into the dealings of the administrative upper management. One might venture to assume that the CEO and his partner's ethics are being called into question. McCall and Kaplan (1990 p93) say, "Decision making cannot be divorced from a manager's values."

Managers place different emphasis on outcomes such as return to shareholders, quality of work, and social responsibility. Because decisions have multiple consequences, the criteria used to evaluate a decision will depend on which consequences are emphasized and by whom. When one makes a decision that has ethical implications one needs to ensure that it is ethically defensible. For example, working on the communications system in a hospital can have life and death consequences. Prior to shutting the system down for an upgrade, policies and procedures need to be followed to ensure ER and other vital units are covered.

Hospital management and floor staff needs to be notified when this event will occur and informed of all alternative arrangements. The system needs to be worked on during a low traffic period to minimize any incidents. When all of these pieces are in place one knows that when one throws the switch to turn the power off that all the bases are covered and we did the best to ensure the safety of others. The matter of moral and ethical decision-making confronts us everyday in our professions. At home or work, we are bombarded by decisions made by companies relying on our use of their products everyday.

When a website is visited and an item purchased, is it ethical to retain that person's buying habits? Is it ethical to do so without their knowledge? Is it ethical to sell those buying habits, their e-mail and shipping addresses, and other personal information to another company without the buyer's knowledge? This utilizing and selling of personal information is an everyday event. The legal community and politicians are scrambling to catch up with the technology and deal with the vast array of ethical and privacy issues. The Internet spans worldwide making law enforcement difficult.

The world will have to ban together to reign in this ever-expanding ethical void. Ethics in decision-making is a part of our daily lives. It is far too prevalent in today's news, business, and schools. They are scrambling to upgrade their policies and curriculum to include some ethical requirements. Several articles state, "it may be better to integrate ethics in to other classes, so students see it as an integral part of other subjects they are studying, such as finance, marketing, or accounting." Ethics is in the forefront of everyone's mind and hopefully, this will spur change and a more ethically aware society. ( Houston Chronicle 2002)

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This is a free research paper on Decision Making topic. Keep in mind that all free research project samples and research paper examples are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research project on Decision Making for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Research Paper on Divorce

Marriage is the foundation in which families are built upon. With more people opting for divorce and even more people cohabitating the family foundation is being weakened. "Not so long ago marital relationships consisted of three elements: an economic bond of mutual dependency; a social bond supported by the extended family and larger community; and a spiritual bond upheld by religious doctrine, observance and faith" <(http://marriage.rutgers.edu)>. With the disappearance of these elements, most couples enter into marriage with the hope that it will last forever but achieving this goal without them has become a more difficult feat. Although, the divorce rate has slowed down and leveled off, almost half of all marriages will end in divorce or separation. Divorce Statistics About one million U.S. marriages are expected to end in divorce in 2001.

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Here are some other divorce statistics: Divorce rate for Americans (1999) 4.1 per 1,000 Lowest Divorce Rate: Massachusetts 2.4 per 1,000 Highest Divorce Rate: Nevada, 9.0 per 1,000 Median Marriage Longevity: 7.2 years Chances a new marriage will end in divorce: 43% Some couples that divorce are choosing to cohabitate rather than face another devastating and painful divorce.

There are a lot of extenuating circumstances that cause the break S Spaulding 2 down of a marriage such as; poor communication skills, avoidance and infidelity and the effects of can be devastating to each individual in the family especially the children. Communication, the most common cause of divorce, is one of the basic keys needed to establish and sustain any relationship but it is vital to a marriage. "Poor communication is the most common complaint (68%) among couples seeking counseling" <(http://mentlahelp.net/psyhhelp/chap3)>. When women are unhappy in a marriage they generally voice their disenchantment and the men may view these as complaints as nagging causing some to shut down and stop listening. This withdrawal in turn sometimes makes the woman even angrier than before.

Now, what may have been a small situation can escalate into a negative exchange that maybe regretted later and not easily taken back. Some couple will use past mistakes and failings to hurt each other. Over time, these escalated conversation start to wear down the marriage and eventually the threats to end the marriage become a welcome resolution. Sometimes, when the communication has crumbled between two married people, it's because one or both partners would prefer to avoid what they might perceive to be a negative discussion. Another cause of divorce is avoidance of discussions.

Couples who tend to avoid issues in the beginning of their marriage eventually experience poor communication because of fear of causing an argument during what is supposed to be the blissful honeymoon time. Subsequently, avoidance can become a pattern throughout the marriage until one partner has had enough. In most relationships women are typically the purser of a discussion and generally the men are the ones who avoid and withdraw from discussions. When the men shut down and stop listening the women tend to see this avoidance and withdrawal as the partner not caring about them or what they think.

On the other hand, some men withdraw to avoid what they fear may happen once the S Spaulding 3 discussion has escalated. These relationships are weakened by either one or both partners' inability to resolve conflict <(http://mentalhelp.net/psyhhelp/chap3)>. Sometimes, when communications breakdown partners start to look for some else to provide them an ear. An additional cause for divorce is infidelity. Infidelity puts a strain on trust; the very fiber that holds a marriage together. Generally, when one or both spouse's needs aren't being met they can become vulnerable to infidelity and sometimes this is due to poor communication.

"Even though surveys vary greatly in their estimate of infidelity (from 25% to 70% of partners), the Kinsey Institute estimates that about 35% of husbands and 30% of wives have been unfaithful" <(http://mentalhelp.net/psyhhelp/chap3)>. The spouse that discovers their partner has been unfaithful is left feeling depressed, hurt, betrayed, and angry. Although, infidelity doesn't always have to mean that the love is gone in the marriage, however, it does mean there is some underlying problem that needs to be addressed.

The trust that is shattered with infidelity may take years to repair but takes a commitment from both spouses. With counseling, some of these couples may learn to forgive and move on to a better relationship but 1/3 will end in divorce <(http://mentlahelp.net/psyhhelp/chap3)>. The negative effects of divorce can be detrimental for the entire family. The adults involve sometimes experience depression and anxiety. They spend years trying to recover from the pain and loss of their divorce.

"Ten years later 40-50% of women and 30-40% of men remain angry at the former spouse and felt rejected and exploited" <(http://mentalhelp.net/psyhhelp/chap3)>. Once one of the spouses leaves the home, the income of some families drops significantly. "Almost 50 percent of households with children undergoing divorce move into poverty following the divorce. Some 40 percent S Spaulding 4 of families on AFDC are divorced or separated single-parent households" <(http://www.worldandi.com/public/2000/october/divorce.html)>. This may result in having to move the family to another affordable home and having to leave the support of friends. However, the children of the divorced couples suffer the greatest pain.

The degree of emotional distress that the children experience depends largely on how the parents handle their conflict. A lot of children end up afraid of the fighting and may blame themselves for their parent's conflict. They are very concerned about being abandoned and feel responsible when one of the parents eventually leaves the home. The relationship with the absent parent is sometimes strained and can deteriorate. Studies show that boys tend to express their anger by lashing outwardly and displaying aggressive behavior.

Girls tend to internalize their frustrations, experiencing depression and suffer stomach problems. Some children's children capacity to lean, achieve and handle conflict is hindered by divorce. "Social science research is showing that the effects of divorce continue into adulthood and affect the next generation of children as well" <(http://www.worldandi.com/public/2000/october/divorce.html)>. The causes of divorce are numerous; poor communication, avoidance and infidelity are only a few of the problems that married couples face today.

Evidence clearly demonstrates the lasting effects of divorce on both the parents and especially the innocent children. Because some parents never learn to resolve issues, this legacy can be past down from generation to generations unless something is done to stop the trend. We, as a country, need to set up programs to educate couples before they enter into marriage the effective ways to communicate. And we need to encourage couples to sit down before they get married and discuss their expectations of marriage, which are S Spaulding 5 sometimes unrealistic. We need programs for children when they are young that will show them how to communicate effectively to one another and resolve issues without violence.

It would also be beneficial for children to be able to express their emotions with one another when their family is going through divorce to let them know their not alone. When a divorce is inevitable, couples should be required to get counseling so that they are aware of the impact that divorce has on all the family members. The counseling needs to definitely include what to say to the children about the pending divorce and what not to say about the other partner. Divorce is almost never a happy situation but it doesn't have to have the impact that it does on our children, our future.

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This is a free research paper on Divorce topic. Keep in mind that all free research project samples and research paper examples are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research project on Divorce for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Research Paper on Nokia

In this constantly growing innovative world, Nokia - one of the world's leading players in wireless communications has a responsibility to society as a whole to contribute to the development of new technologies and products for mobile communications. Consequently, for Nokia to achieve this, it is important that they recognize what kind of market they can target that would be favorable to both company and customer. Hence, this report describes specific strategies that Nokia should undertake in order to provide value to a selected customer group in particular, targeting the business industry but more specifically, middle managers and the like. In addition, the Value Planning Model will be used to demonstrate the link between Nokia understanding their customer values and the ensuing of configuration, communication and delivery of said values.

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Nokia Telecommunications has achieved a unique place, competing in the world's telecommunications industry in general and in the mobile industry in particular. Nokia is an organization that must constantly use innovation in order to survive and grow in this ever revolutionizing world of technology. As the mobile industry continues to rapidly grow, pressure for groups in this exchange system within which Nokia operates has strengthened in order to quickly embrace the progress of mobile services as well as market growth for the entire mobile industry.

One such group is the Open Mobile Alliance since its inception in June 2002, has rapidly expanded from approximately 180 founding members (including Nokia) to involve more than 300 companies (Nokia.com, 2003a). The Open Mobile Alliance is a group of companies and organizations that are committed to a shared set of principles, who have come together to drive the growth of the mobile industry.

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This is a free research paper on Nokia topic. Keep in mind that all free research project samples and research paper examples are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research project on Nokia for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Research Proposal on Women

"Ironically, the most complete description of women's suffering from domestic violence has entered our case law and legal literature at the point where violence against women finally harms men - when battered women kill in self-defense."

--Lenore Walker

"She is Francine Hughes, who poured kerosene around the bed of her sleeping husband and lit the bed on fire . . . the same night Mrs. Hughes was smeared with food and garbage and raped by Mr. Hughes. She is Leslie Emick, who shot her sleeping husband; three days before, Mrs. Emick was burned with an electric immersion coil in her vagina, nearly hanged in a shed, and struck in the head with a mallet by Mr. Emick." (Feminists Negotiate the State p. 53) These are only a few examples of some experiences women have had due to the abuse of their husbands or lovers. When a man beats a woman once or twice a week, and she kills him to protect herself from more physical or emotional abuse, the act should be considered self-defense rather than premeditated murder. These women are often seen as having a motive to kill because there is no other way out of their abusive situation. Society may condone the man's behavior or reject her because of her decision to leave.

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In the case of Mrs. Emick, when taken to court, she was convicted of first degree manslaughter. The defense attorney, on Mrs. Emick's behalf, presented testimonies from both a physician and psychiatrist who supported the magnitude of her physical and psychological torture. In the end, the prosecution said, "the very ongoing nature of the abuse prove[d] that Miss Emick was under no imminent danger, particularly from a sleeping man." (Feminists Negotiating the State p. 54) Similarly, Judy Norman, a woman who shot her husband in the back of the head while he slept was charged with voluntary manslaughter in North Carolina. The state supreme court ruled the defendant was not in imminent danger because she was - "not faced with instantaneous choice between killing her husband or being killed or seriously injured." - (Feminists Negotiating the State p. 60)

Many homicides of spouses are committed during times of non-abuse and therefore the premise of self-defense is hard to prove. Therefore, it is necessary to explore other possible motives. There are an overwhelmingly large number of murders committed by abused women in a highly emotional state, for purposes such as jealousy, anger or revenge. These are called "senseless" homicides by government officials and typically are regarded by the judicial system as "involving simple meanness or sociopathic behavior". (When Women Kill p. 174) Additionally, it is hard to prove that the woman was being abused and acted solely in self-defense. But, in many cases, both self-defense and emotional motives can be considered a possibility, so it is necessary then to take into account the prospect of premeditation. If the woman appeared to premeditate the murder beforehand, self-defense is many times not seen as a valid defense. But yet, the idea of premeditation is hard to define and even harder to prove. A small number of the women had threatened their abuser with homicide before committing the act and yet prosecutors have used the statement, "I'm going to kill him for that" as verification for premeditation. Also, stashing a knife (i.e. for emergencies like burglaries) was ultimately considered an act of premeditation. Why does a jury accept a crude statement as evidence for premeditation? People say ridiculous and fictitious statements daily but never carry out their threats. Some reports, such as the study performed by Winn, Haugen and Jurik in 1988 indicated that only 27% of the women had premeditated their homicides. (When Women Kill p.175) It is a possible then that the judicial system does not realize the magnitude of women's abuse and then dignifies a statement as valid evidence of premeditation. The prosecution may be too weak and the judicial system wants to serve justice to the woman who killed her spouse and allows that as ample evidence.

During the 1970's Lenore Walker did a study on abused women and the steps that were taken by the judicial system to help them (which proved to be very little). She discovered that "an arrest of the batterer was not mandatory, and restraining orders against the batterer were not effectively enforced, if they were even granted at all." (Feminists Negotiate the State p. 56) Sue Ostoff, a woman who continued the research on battered women in 1992 declared, "When battered women kill their abusers, the same criminal justice system that often could not protect them vigorously prosecutes them as violent criminals." (p.56)

Violence against women is condoned by the small number of protective laws for abused women. This standard can be due to the history of wife beating dating back to the Puritanical century. An old English proverb says, "A spaniel, a woman, and a hickory tree, the more ye beat them, the better they be." This standard of wife abuse was held in the 15th century and wasn't reproached until Mary Wollstonecraft in the late 18th century when she spoke of the ill-treatment of women and their need for legal protection. (Feminists Negotiating the State p.5) There is a report that states the use of the "rule of thumb", which was used in England. This permitted a man to beat his wife with any instrument as long as it wasn't bigger than his thumb. These were acceptable levels of violence against women in those times. Until the middle of the 19th century, there were no laws regarding wife abuse. Legislation was finally passed in Tennessee in 1850 and Georgia in 1857 regarding wife abusers, and it acknowledged that hitting their spouse as a misdemeanor. (Battered Women's Justice p. 10) Finally in 1972 the battered women's movement began and women's shelters were created and laws were being ratified by states defining women's rights. It took more than 500 years for women to achieve any sort of rights in this country and it is very hard to believe a law can be passed and every citizen will appreciate it and obey it. There are men (and possibly some women) who continue to believe in and condone the act of abusing women. At the beginning of the feminist movement for battered women, "feminists assumed that violence against women was rooted in a patriarchal system that condoned violence against women. To end wife abuse, the patriarchy itself needed to be challenged and dismantled." (Battered Women's Justice p. 3) In these terms, when women are on the same level as men in society, there will no longer be wife abuse. That may be far down the road.

Until men and women are equal, the power and ability of women who leave their husbands may still remain low. Women are beaten within an inch of their lives, raped and tortured for lengthy periods of time but they stay. It appears as though many do not have other options. In an interview, a woman named Karen Weber, who had been abused for 19 years of marriage, answered the question of why women stay in abusive relationships. She said, "I hate to say something as trite as "People stay for the kids", or "Women are scared to be on their own" but I think that most of the time, that's the truth. She went on to say that she stayed with her husband Kenny for so long because she was afraid of the humiliation and shame that it creates when people ask why a woman is no longer with her husband. "People prod and you don't want to tell them he stabbed you with fire pokers or hit you so hard blood vessels popped in your eye and permanently damaged your sight. Unfortunately, they don't judge the men - just the women." She added that she was also guilty of staying for her children and finally had the courage to leave when they were all in college. Karen Weber is just like thousands of other cases of women who are afraid to leave.

But juries, prosecutors, judges do often ask, "Why didn't she just leave, rather than killing or trying to murder the abuser?" (Battered Women's Justice p. 80) A large portion of this has to do with gender biases. Research says that girls are presumed to be more passive and dependent and boys are for their protection. When a woman attempts to be independent and is leaving an abusive relationship, it does not coincide with the social norm and for many women has proven to be difficult finding a job. Her past is a big issue and her employer may feel uncomfortable with the circumstances. Although a valid point, many do not side with her on the basis that money is no reason to stay with an abusive mate. Unfortunately, statistics show that single mothers are very economically and legally disadvantaged. Upon finding a job, wages can be low and child care can be impossible to find. If they decide to break out on their own without their children, it is said in Feminists Negotiate the State that a woman has "very little chance of re-establishing any parental rights in the future. . . women who leave are most at risk for being hurt or killed." (p. 92) Most importantly, if a man is threatened with separation, he may become enraged and lash out at the victim worse than before. "Leaving does not end the violence; on the contrary, it may make it worse." Men have attacked their spouses long periods after the women have left and the men killed, raped or beat the women again. (Battered Women's Justice p. 82) In Karen Weber's case, her husband Kenny followed her to work and watched her children during the school day, but never came close enough to inflict any physical pain.

The women who call the police on their abusive husbands are referred to as hassles. Mrs. Emick killed her husband during his sleep after she had been burned in the vagina, but would the police have helped her had she called for their help? The acts of this woman and Francine Hughes as well as countless others should be a matter of open and closed trials. Their husbands beat them and the women saw no other way to end the abuse but to kill. Society has offered them no support and stereotypically, women are supposed to endure this treatment. Some legislative changes that provide more protection for the abused woman have been made, although they are still too minuscule. It is becoming clearer that women who are abused are killing due to their need to protect themselves or their children, because the judicial system has proven to be useless for them. Unfortunately, in trials where a woman has killed her husband because he has burnt her with cigarettes, raped her for sexual pleasure, stabbed her for fun or made her suffer any other awful abuse, the courts often turn a "deaf ear". Is this sort of behavior classified in the "rule of thumb"? More often than not, the judicial system has been accused of being biased against women and attempting to put out a message that women should be submissive and depend on "her" man. But does this hold true if he beats her within an inch of her life?

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This is a free research proposal on Women topic. Keep in mind that all free research proposal samples and examples of research paper proposals are taken from open sources – they are totally plagiarized! If you need a quality custom research proposal on Women for your college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research proposal writing company to have your paper written online by academic research proposal writers.
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Research Proposal on Discrimination

Discrimination happens because people are not alike in religion, skin color, gender or ethnicity, but people always say that they are glad that everyone is not exactly alike. Yet, people cannot cope with the thought of people being different. Discrimination in religion is a "hot" topic to discuss. Discrimination in religion as been around since the 1800, when England would not allow Catholic queens to be appointed to the thrown. Also, when the Catholic's did not allow protestant teaching to continue, and if one did so the consequence would be death or imprisonment. Then the reversed and Catholicism would not be allowed to be taught(the conquence would be the same for Protestants).

Religious beliefs have been resolved in America by the First Amendment, but still needs to be changed in other countries. The color of a person skin used to be a extreme problem during the 1900's. Mainly if the color of a persons skin is white, that person is okay: other colors would be treaty poorly if they had a different color. Discrimination mainly happened to those of black decent. Those who were black would sometimes be killed, made as slaves or beaten. Although there are still problems with people who have issues about skin color it has rapidly been less of a problem. When it came to ethnicity mostly all over ethnicities cut caucasians were harassed. People that looked Asians during the Vietam War was verblly and physically harrassed, even though they had no part in the war. When it was the Civil War, black people had no rights and were worth nothing. They were not even counted as a whole person. but as a third of a whole person. Now a days there is a discrimination towards all ethic groups: whether it is Caucasians, African-American, Asian, Mexican, etc. So in a way there is equality, but still discrimination. Somehow there is less discrimination in the world, yet there is still some. Since discrimination is not a disease it cannot be cured with a shot, but only with time, or it might not ever be resolved.

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Women in the 1800's vs. women in 2002, Let's go back in history. Now imagine you are a woman in the late 1800's. What do you think is expected of you? Well of course you should be married by the time you are sixteen or seventeen. You should probably have at least one child by now. Do not even think about having a career because you need to be at home cooking, cleaning and raising kids. Thank goodness that I did not live back then because I think I would have went crazy. In fact, if I was living in the 1800's I would have been considered a old maid by now since I am 25 and unmarried. Historically, women have been considered as inferior to men. Foe example, in Greek Mythology Pandora was the one who opened the forbidden box and brought plagues and unhappiness to mankind. Also, the early Roman law described woman, as children theologist Thomas Aquinas said that woman was "created to be man's helpmeet, but her unique role is conception". Since for other purposes men would be better assisted by other men. For a long time woman had not been given the credit that is due to them. Man men felt that women were squeamish and were unable to do work that muscular or intellectual development. Men felt that woman could only do domestic chores such as caring for children, milking the cows, and washing the clothes. Obviously these men did not consider the fact that those clothes also require physical labor. Now however, physiological test suggest that we as women have a greater tolerance to pain then that of men do. Today some men still probably feel that women are weaker than they are. Okay lets be honest most men in the back of their heads think that we are weaker than they are. The difference now is that men can not and most f the time would not want to stop us from doing physical labor anymore. Many women in today's society have jobs that require physical labor, such as construction workers, doctors, lawyers and even a policewoman. In the 1800's most women did not attend school with men. College was out of the question for women to think about back then. If a woman did get a job it was usually as a teacher or a nurse. They would have to leave these jobs after they were married and start having children. Slowly things started to change for women. More women than ever were attending college now and getting a degree in a variety of fields. Like me, I am a political science major with a minor in philosophy. I also have associate degree in applied science with a specialty in management and supervision. Back in the 1800's this would have been impossible for me and other females attending college. In fact, many women now live on their own either in a apartment or in their own house. Women have the option now of when to get married and to start their families. In today's socity females can work at home or away from the house. Slowly the worlds viewa of womemn id changing. Things are not completely equal between men and women. Hopefully it will be someday but for now we have a lot of freedom than that we would have back in the 1800's.

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This is a free research proposal on Discrimination topic. Keep in mind that all free research proposal samples and examples of research paper proposals are taken from open sources – they are totally plagiarized! If you need a quality custom research proposal on Discrimination for your college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research proposal writing company to have your paper written online by academic research proposal writers.
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Research Paper on Happiness

True happiness can be defined as the state of joy that is rather permanent, in the sense that this state of bliss is not easily swayed by any unfortunate events that occur. We can therefore say that true happiness is a state that is attainable and achievable which in turn also implies that it is not just an illusion. There are many ways to achieve true happiness and it is all up to us to explore. There are many aspects to derive true happiness from, namely, through the fulfilling of human wants, religion, relationships with others and et cetera. I believe that though difficult, with a moderate desire in all these aspects, the state of true happiness can be attained.

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The human wants are an aspect that seems to be considered a hindrance to the achievement of bliss since it is considered insatiable and limitless. Constant human desire for material goods makes it close to impossible for one to be contented and satisfied with what he or she already possesses; one is constantly attempting ways to upgrade one's material possessions to keep up with the current trends as in the case of mobile phones. Though it is good to want to progress with the times, one should not be overwhelmed by the desire and pursue these material goods for purposes of vanity or for enhancement of one's pride and image. Therefore, if one is able to appreciate what he or she has and be contented of being to able to afford what is essential to survive, there is no need to have the best of its kind and one would still be happy. Happiness would be derived from the fact that one is able to live on this planet comfortably and be thankful for this existence with more attention paid to other more important aspects of life.

Sometimes, religion is the answer to the quest for true happiness. Some people, when in doubt or in the doldrums, turn to religion to seek peace and serenity. Many people turn to meditation when they are frustrated or confused so as to find an inner peace with themselves and with the god of worship. Others who are lost as to where their values stand and need a sense of belonging in this world also approach religion for help. Many a time, when one finds one's calling and establishes a staunch faith in a certain religion, many troubles are ridden of. To devout believers in religion, true happiness is found with the embrace of God's love and a firm faith in whichever god one worships. Religion gives people a sense of identity, a source of help and support of other believers in times of need and this brings true happiness to them. Thus, it is not right to say that true happiness is but an illusion.

Also, true happiness sometimes need not be sought. Many times, it can be found right in one's home. The glee a man feels when he is told by his wife that she is expecting their very own child is priceless and simply indescribable. This is a fine example of where true happiness can be found. The joy that comes from being responsible for creating a life and bringing it into the world is something that cannot be manufactured or bought. It is definitely not an illusion. The love for this child will be a testament of this happiness. There is no parent, under normal circumstances, who will not love his child. Parents of a child will always be happy when they look at their child as it is a product of their love for each other and something they have achieved together. Nothing can replace the joy of bringing another being to earth with a loved one and this happiness will always be treasured and remembered and not just disappear as an illusion would. Therefore, it is perfectly logical that true happiness can be attained and is not just an illusion that is unreachable.

Perhaps the idea of being truly happy is all in the mind. This is a complex notion as it requires a lot of generosity in the heart of a man to feel this happiness. A simple yet meaningful catchphrase now made popular as a jingle for the Nike advertisement, "Always look on the bright side of life." Optimism in living everyday life might just be the key to true happiness; to not behold grudges or lament on one's misfortunes but instead embrace and cherish one's very existence in this world maybe true happiness in itself. Whether one is happy or not, it is all in one's perspective and one's outlook on life. By adopting an optimistic attitude, one easily sees the silver lining in every cloud and focuses on that instead of fretting all the time. Having said all this, we can see that true happiness can be obtained in life albeit it being difficult at times. However, there are also instances where true happiness is right at our feet waiting for us to look down and discover it. It is all up to one to seek true happiness for oneself and not be lazy and give up searching, using an illusion as an excuse for being unable to truly happy.

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This is a free research paper on Happiness topic. Keep in mind that all free research papers and research proposals are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research paper on Happiness for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research paper writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Electronic Communication Research Paper

Abstract

Electronic communication has become a part of every aspect of our society. It is recognized as being one of the most important and influential aspects of the way we conduct business. Electronic communication technology has made it easier to contact other employees in the same office, and even around the world. Computers and software have revolutionized communication within the business office. Programs have made it simple for businesses, small companies, and large corporations, to keep track of any information that passes through the business, whether it is from a secretary or the CEO. Today's society is dependent upon electronic communication. This paper will concentrate on how the areas of the Internet, electronic mail (EMAIL), E-commerce, and E-Business effect the way we communicate within the business world.

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How Electronic Communication is Affecting The Way We Do Business

In business today there is a growing usage and need for off site communication to manage projects and provide specific training. Businesses are finding ways to reduce costs by bringing information to their sites electronically. Technology has enabled organizations to communicate between domestic and international divisions. In addition, companies can communicate with customers, outside consultants and trainers. These communication trends are advanced by cost reduction, effectiveness and efficiency demands, and the capability of technology (Hoyt, 1998).

The World Wide Web or Internet is one of the largest means of electronic communication in business. The World Wide Web is defined as: The leading information retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network). The Web gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each other by means of hypertext or hypermedia links--i.e., hyperlinks, electronic connections that link related pieces of information in order to allow a user easy access to them. The Internet is defined as: "The world's largest computer network, which is actually a network of networks" (Thill & Bovee, 1998). The driving force behind the Internet and World-Wide Web (WWW) are facilitating business communication unhampered by geographical distances and provides rapid access to information. The Internet started as a government project in the late 1960's that connected bulky and slow computers from one place to another by a network line for the purpose of exchanging information. Today, computers have evolved to small, super-fast machines with Internet capabilities that come standard. Since the 1960's, the use of the Internet has sky rocketed, with a growth rate of 341,634% for the WWW sites.

The World Wide Web has accomplished wonders for businesses and consumers around the globe by supplying them with quantities of information on every product or service imaginable. It has become a viable marketing channel for most companies selling goods, from financial services to hot sauce. As the use of the internet continues to weave its way into the fabric of everyday business and personal life, and as the second wave of Internet entrepreneurship takes root, companies of all types are being forced to address how best to make the Internet a fundamental part of their business and their competitive communication strategy.

There were an estimated 400 million people worldwide using the Internet in 2001; about 167 million in North America, 105 million in Europe, 122 million in the Asia-Pacific region, 21 million in Latin America, and 7 million the rest of the world. With as many users that connect to the Internet everyday, many businesses have an important source that they can use to their advantage (Treese, 2000). 

Businesses have taken advantage of the Internet to expand their capabilities, whether it is expanding their market or acquiring a faster method of communication within and outside the business. The introduction of Internet communication has changed the way businesses operate, by increasing competitiveness and advancing the company by allowing vital information to be sent and received at a faster rate. In the 21st century, over 50% of American homes possess one or more computers. Businesses and consumers are becoming more and more comfortable conducting business and communicating with their providers electronically.

A 1997 study by investment bank Hambrecht & Quist found that 90 percent of companies interviewed were considering creating a WWW site or modifying an existing site in the next year if they had not done so already. A growing number of companies are doing an excellent job at creating new value for their customers and profits for themselves through creative marketing on the Web. This process has seen the transformation of certain supply chains by connecting buyers globally with sources of supplies, thereby satisfying the values of consumers more efficiently.

There are many advantages for companies to communicate electronically through the Internet. Perhaps the most important advantage is the electronic trail of documentation and the fact that marketing materials are always current and compliant. The cost savings for companies can be extremely attractive. Electronic communication provides an opportunity to execute true one-to-one marketing, by providing customers with targeted messages and product marketing only in areas where they have interest and possess a high propensity to buy. Interacting with customers when they want and how they want increases retention and brand loyalty. Over the past few years electronic customer service has proven to be a distinct competitive advantage in the marketplace ("Electronic Delivery:", n.d.).

Electronic Mail or email is a second form of electronic communication that is helping to influence how we do business today. Undoubtedly it is the most used Internet service. E-mail allows a user to send an electronic message to anyone else in the world that is also connected to the Internet. E-mail is defined as: An efficient and easy way to send messages quickly to other people, in your own office or around the world electronically. E-mail is inexpensive, convenient, and portable. E-mail offers numerous advantages over regular post-office mail (often called "snail mail" by Internet users). Email has come a long way since its early beginning. The capabilities of email today are almost limitless. 

Companies and individuals are able to attach and transmit large files or documents such as presentations or vital statistical reports. This luxury has saved the business world countless dollars and man-hours. A primary advantage is speed of communication. A letter sent from Omaha to Tampa via regular mail takes three to five days for delivery, whereas you could send a message via e-mail to anyone else who has email capabilities and they would receive it almost instantaneously. Additionally, you can simultaneously send a message to any number of people. The impact of e-mail has revolutionized the workplace. Every day, millions of American workers use their e-mail and Internet systems. A poll reported by Kopp (1998) estimates that 90 percent of large companies, 64 percent of mid-sized companies, and 42 percent of small firms currently use e-mail systems. The same poll found that more than 40 million employees correspond via e-mail, and the number is expected to increase by about 20 percent each year. These statistics are indicative of the popularity of electronic communication in today's workplace. E-mail technology has facilitated a means of efficient interoffice communications, as well as external communications with clients, customers, and other businesses. Email expedites personal transactions; and in many instances, e-mail has effectively replaced the hand or typewritten note and letter of memorandum. Depending on the type of Internet connection the company is supporting, the cost to send a single e-mail is considerably cheaper then sending a letter via the U.S. Postal system or other means of document transportation. There are several ways to transport electronic information from one destination to the next. The most inexpensive way of sending electronic info is through a direct connection, sometimes called a Local Area Network (LAN) or intranet (meaning within). A connection to the Internet requires some type of Internet Service Provider (ISP). Although ISPs charge a small monthly fee for service access to the Internet, companies still recognize a tremendous savings over using the old traditional U.S. Postal service or other document transportation service. Email has proven to be a cheap and efficient way of sending and exchanging documents. Most company E-mail systems provide a method or software package for organizing, tracking and filing important electronic communications / documents. For example, most, if not all, e-mail software programs have an inbox for incoming mail, and an outbox for mail that you have sent. These packages also provide an interface that allows the user to save an email or file to a specified location on their computer or the company's network (Craiger & Weiss, 1996). This new form of organization can make the employee's and managements work a little easier.

E-BUSINESS / E-COMMERCE: Although the concept of on-line business communities is not new, their application to business is gaining momentum. Armstrong and Hagel maintain that entire industry supply chains are moving toward a transaction-based business model. A few companies, most notably General Electric, are starting to realize benefits by shifting from the physical business community to an electronic business community model. GE's Trading Process Network (TPN) is an on-line business community that allows the company to transact about $1 billion worth of business with more than 1,400 suppliers scattered around the globe (Armstrong & Hagel III, 1996). Before going much further let's clearly define the terms of E-Commerce and E-Business. Akarin Weatherford, Indian River Consulting Group, defines them as follows: E-Commerce is the buying and selling of goods and services over the Internet plus the technology infrastructure and applications used to support those transactions. Examples: Business to Business (B2B) "Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) between a manufacturer and distributor and Business to Consumer (B2C) -- Buying retail goods and services on-line. E-Business is the use of technology infrastructure and applications to synthesize and optimize new and existing business processes. Examples: Placing purchase order forms online with online approval. Using online collaboration tools to increase the productivity between geographically separated offices (Payne, 2001).

Businesses have long recognized that to succeed they must know who their customers are, what they want, and how to respond to and anticipate their needs. Businesses are able to attract and retain customers as never before through improving customer service, increasing customer satisfaction, and ensuring their products and services are fully integrated in order to deliver them faster and cheaper. No organization large or small, public or private, can afford to ignore the impact that new technologies are having on our lives. The people will not allow it. Companies in every sector must fundamentally alter the way their organizations does "business" in this new environment. Managing this change successfully is a key component of success. The E-revolution is driving the demands of ordinary people, policy-makers, wealth-creators, and business competitiveness. The electronic business community requires the cooperation and an open exchange of information among all participants. 

Despite the popular attention given to marketing consumer goods on the Internet, the market for business-to-business commerce via the Web is potentially huge and estimated to be worth about ten times as much as Internet sales of consumer goods. Just as interested individuals have been grouped into loosely knit "communities" based on common preferences and hobbies, electronic business communities are beginning to link entire industry supply chains. The electronic business community model is not a one-dimensional interim linkage between buyers and sellers, nor is it limited to electronic commerce. Rather, these communities leverage the cost-cutting Information Technology (IT) streamlining activities of the 1980s and early 1990s and the emerging dominance of huge, global business networks to forge closer relationships among competitors, suppliers, buyers, and sellers. The result is a new business community that applies electronic network channels to lower the long-standing barriers between the different participants. Continuing advancements and cost reductions in the necessary technology are bringing down many barriers to adopting this new model for competition. However, it will ultimately be a shift in the attitudes of management that prompts the decision to adopt such electronic communities in business. In the end, their future depends on management's ability to view traditional business differently and adapt new market strategies accordingly. One need only consider the recent collaborations between the big three automakers in launching the Automotive Network Exchange (ANX) to further understand the impending effects of electronic business communities. ANX will establish a standard method for parts suppliers to communicate with and obtain order information from the auto manufacturers. The potential result will be a lower cost structure for the entire automotive industry in which all participants will benefit. At the same time, such benefits will greatly modify the competitive strategies and interactions among all participants.

An article out of the United Kingdom reported last October that the e-commerce minister, Patricia Hewitt, revealed that 1.7 million small to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) are now online, exceeding the government's own target of 1.5 million by 2002. The minister's assessment was upbeat. "This year's report shows business across the UK has embraced information and communication technologies (ICTs) and is seizing the opportunities e-commerce presents."

In conclusion I leave you with a quote from Rob Harris, managing director Industrial Fastener Institute, who stated "E-Commerce and E-Business, It ain't going away, so don't bury your head in the sand". (Payne 2001).

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This is a free research paper on Electronic Communication topic. Keep in mind that all free research papers and research proposals are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research paper on Electronic Communication for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research paper writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Hacking Research Paper

The definition of a hacker, according to the Hacker's Dictionary is, "a person who enjoys exploring the details of programmable systems and how to stretch their capabilities." Most hackers think of hacking as a game in which their mind is up against that of the system designers. The Internet allows the hackers to take files, programs, passwords, and other information from users that are using it. They use this as a tool to make it easier to beat a system. Most hackers start hacking as a way to create mischief and to have fun, but with time it may become an addiction and may cause serious run ins with the law.

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There are many methods of hacking; one of the more familiar methods is the method in which they try to crack a password with a valid user name that they have acquired. Once they have a user name they can attempt to crack the password. It may seem that it would take a long time to crack the code but with today's technology it is possible to acquire software that could test 500 000 passwords a minute. Within no time the hacker would be able to gain access into the system, and once they are in, they could change passwords and also change the configuration of the system potentially causing a lot of damage to the system if they see fit.

Another method of hacking is the method in which the hacker, "listens in" on the computers communication. This is possible with the easy download of software that logs every keystroke of the keyboard. They can then look over everything that was typed into the computer and find out what user names and passwords are used by the computer user. They can then gain access and change whatever they want to.

One of the more difficult ways to hack, but, one of the more elegant forms, is to be able to bypass a password. This is done by gaining access through a different server and thereby being able to enter an account without the use of a password. It is a more difficult way of doing things, but it is a more satisfying accomplishment to a hacker once they have done so.

With the rapid growth of the internet, comes a greater need for security and privacy. Hackers are finding that when they have run ins with the law, their punishment is very severe, for what they are doing. They are finding that sentences for hacking are greater then those of robbery and murder. Recently a new bill has been introduced into the US legislation, "Cyber Security Enhancement Act of 2001", which would increase the punishment of hackers found guilty of illegal activity. An example of this strict punishment, is the arrest of a 17-year-old New Hampshire High School dropout who was arrested for gaining unauthorized access to a DARE.com computer system in Los Angeles. He was charged as an adult with two counts of unauthorized access to a computer system. Each charge carries up to 15 years in prison. In China hackers may be found guilty and sentenced to death because Capital Punishment is a legal repercussion that some hackers may be faced with.

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This is a free research paper on Hacking topic. Keep in mind that all free research papers and research proposals are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research paper on Hackers for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research paper writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Research Paper on Sexual Predators

Childhood is supposed to be a time of discovery and play, not abuse. Was there ever such a world? Sexual predators have been lurking this planet for decades; now they're being marked for life because of there actions. Neighbors and the home towns of sexual predators are being alerted of their crimes and whereabouts by local police. Such towns have responded by putting up signs in their town, "CHILD MOLESTER TWO DOORS DOWN" (Popkin, pg 73). Others responded by burning or flooding their new neighbors out (Popkin). What did these convicted criminals do to deserve such punishment? They violated the most precious living creature on this planet, a child. Communities definitely have a right to know that a dangerous child molester is moving to their town.

Child molesters have been convicted, charged and sentenced for their crimes for many years. Maybe people already have one as their next door neighbor. Do people really know the people they live by so well, that they would leave their own child with them? Also, if they had a legal right to, would they check out their neighbor's history at the police office, or trust them?

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In the summer of 1994, seven-year-old Megan Kanka was kidnapped, raped, then killed by convicted child molester Jesse Timmendequas. Her story started many parents to question the safety of their own children. The outraged community was never informed that Timmendequas and two other convicted child abusers had moved in across the street from Megan (Megan Kanka).

Megan's death lit her parents' fires to do something about notifying communities of convicted child molesters. They began to lobby for "Megan's Law", a law that would require immediate community notification of convicted child abusers, who were living in their area (Popkin). Some critics contend that the law is unconstitutional because it adds additional punishment to offenders (Megan's Unfinished Legacy). Other critics say that it would drive predators into hiding and away from seeking counsel. Child molester Scott Murphy said, "Without counseling, you're the same person when you go to jail as when you get out" (Popkin, pg.73). Before the passing of the law, a group of offenders appealed the judges' ruling that the notification was unconstitutional because it's intended to protect children, not further punish criminals (Megan's Unfinished Legacy). The law was passed.

The biggest problem that police officers face is determining which released sex offenders are the most dangerous. No matter how 'dangerous', communities should still be notified or the abusers should be put into counseling immediately. The other option to counseling is medical treatment, as in drugs. Chemical treatments and the intensive counseling sessions together seem to be the most effective. Without even knowing the origin of the cause, the treatments are working (Popkin).

A December 1996 report showed that twenty-six states automatically notified communities of abusers; fourteen states had access to reports and eleven states had no access at all. Another option presented to the different states, was the decision whether or not to hold dangerous sex offenders in mental institutions after their prison sentence. Only seven states have chosen to do so(Adler; Annin).

This report is misleading. A personal telephone call to the Grand Junction District Attorney's office would find one with no answers. Just asking for statistics, no names, one would be told that they don't have that information and even if they did, they couldn't release it because it was protected (District Attorney). This is shocking because, as of September 1997, Megan's Law was supposed to be in full effect. Thus, making it possible for anyone to know about convicted child abusers in their town. It was also supposed to be mandatory that local authorities sent out notifications about the abusers. One would also find it difficult to find this information anywhere else. Not one local child abuse center or sheriff's office could tell you anything about the reports (District Attorney). On the other hand, there have been bulletins released within certain counties to neighbors of convicted child abusers. This is good because parents can be aware of the predators whereabouts. However, local officials should make the reports more readily available.

Megan's law led to the passage of eight companion bills-some of which had been pending in the Legislature for more than a year (Carter). The new law also led to the quick arrests of convicted sex offenders, who had been released and had struck again. This was possible with the new requirement of making them register with their local police. When they register, they are fingerprinted and DNA samples are taken (Carter). The police can run checks with their records and easily match them if they are registered. This is good because they can hopefully catch the abusers when they are still in the area. It also helps the police to find the predators if they go out of state easily. Before this program, police were just going on circumstantial evidence. Now, they know if the predator has committed a crime before and some of his characteristics because they have his DNA from the crime scene. This new way of registering the offenders and taking their DNA has shown to be the most effective in convincing criminals to not recommit crimes ( Carter).

The strongest deterrent to repeat child abusers is stiffer prison sentences. Suggestion of the death penalty is rumor in many district and state court rooms. Unlike most offenses that are brought up in court, child abuse cases are worrying the judges more and more. Seeing a child violated and murdered lets them see how innocence can be stripped away so easily. One federal judge commented, "He (Timmendequas) is exactly the type of criminal they had in mind when they implemented the death penalty" (Megan's Unfinished Legacy).

One state official said that there was no 'empirical data' showing that Megan's law or the related laws have reduced the number of violent sex crimes against children. No state agencies even keep such information ( Carter). This and many other questions remain unanswered, but the states are still trying to implement the law within their system; so it's really too early to draw conclusions. At the same time, millions of children are being killed, families torn apart; and has left officials scrambling for a cure for this plague of inhumanity. The best they can do for now is to alert communities of the released child abusers whereabouts and hope that they don't strike again.

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This is a free research paper on Sexual Predators topic. Keep in mind that all free research papers and research proposals are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research paper on Sexual Predators for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research paper writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.
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Research Paper on Political Science

Our founding father set forth a constitution in 1787 to insulate government from the masses, and create a national government that has the capabilities to do what it wants and needs, by a government compiled as a result of the elite, white, Anglo-Saxon men of each state. A government elite is when there is A minority that should be the only one to govern. These delegates say the national government is strong enough to do what is "right" for the nation and is insulated from the "wrong" people. Our government was derived of fifty-five wealthy men who wanted only to represent their states efficiently and derive a constitution, which takes the powers of government out of the hands of the uneducated masses and position it in the hands of the minority elite.

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The framers of the constitution knew that the only way our government would survive would be to give the people enough power to keep them from wanting to revolt, while actually leaving the imperative decisions to the elite who do what they think is ideologically right. Through the eleven years before the constitution, the characteristics of the men who wrote the document, the major features of the constitution, and the "compromises" show that the constitution of 1787 was elitist. It is clear that this way of governing is unjust because the three circumstances in deciding justice is equality, freedom and order.

In this way of governing, only order is shown. As our country became an independent state in 1776, the eleven years prior to the writing of the constitution was governed not by a government elite but by a capitalist system, which was based at a time of experimentation of our government and rebellion for our people. Our government started to lack authority of those it governed because the elite of our nation, the creditors, lost faith in our economy. "In a capitalist system, the health of the economy is intricately tied to the health of the creditor class." (Text, pg. 50) As our government tried to take initiative and pass two laws to help our economy, their plan backfired and inadvertently caused our economy to crash.

Not only instigating our debtors to go bankrupt but also our creditor class, leaving only one option for our citizens to rebel. "Both types of laws were originally designed to relieve the economic pressures of the debtor class by allowing debt repayment to be less painful during bad economic times. The results were quite the opposite." (Text, pg. 50) Our government was not yet a government run by the elite theory and did not try to aid the elite but gave the power to the people.

By inflating the economy with this new coined money, our whole class system was destroyed and therefore caused both the creditors and the farmers to go bankrupt. This then led to Shays Rebellion because the farmers felt they had the power to start a war against the elite creditors and they challenged our government by burning down courthouses. After this incident, this then awakened our government, as we recognized a need to change our new independent nation before we fell apart. The framers of our constitution were the elite of our nation, chosen to represent their states and the creditors, not the population as a whole.

"All the men at the convention were creditors who represented the conservative interests of the creditor class." "They did not represent the population at large. The delegates were all white men who ranged in age from twenty-six to eighty-one." (Text, pg. 54.) The basis to our constitution, which is the basis to our nation's laws, was contrived by a group of men who only held the interests of the elite when writing it. Because no one was representing the needs of the poor farmers, our nation is founded on what fifty-five wealthy men thought would benefit them and their states.

"The men who attended were some of the most prominent economic and political figures in the Unites States." (Text, pg. 53) These elite men not only represented the power of government, but also took control of it by giving themselves the capabilities needed to pass what they thought was necessary for the well being of the nation. Our government was based on the belief that the masses should have as little to do with government decisions as possible, while rendering them to believe they had most of the power. This belief caused the framers to allow the people to vote only for the representatives of the House and indirectly elect all other members of government.

By doing so, the government took the majority of power out of the hands of the uneducated massed and placed it into the wealthy creditor class. "The delegated believed that the masses should have a very limited role in the selection of their governors; this role, if any, should be indirect. The delegates never meant for "the people" to govern either directly or indirectly in their national government." "The only constitutional officers to be "elected" by the people were the members of the House of Representatives." (Text, pg. 55) By taking the power to vote from the masses and giving it to the elite, the government is monopolizing all the government positions, except the House, which allows them to pass laws and control the nation much easier.

By allowing the masses to vote for the members of the House, the people feel as if they are playing a big role in government and that their votes are being heard, which in effect, prevents them from wanting to revolt. Our government wanted to prevent the possibility of electing an uneducated politician to represent our government for more than a certain period of time, and preventing a huge shift of power; they ensured this through the process of staggered elections. Because they had to give a minimal amount of power to the masses our government had to protect itself from the possibility of an ignorant representative. This is conducted through staggered elections because every two years there is some sort of election representing a candidate for a different field of government. By staggering the elections for the Senate for example, no state can elect two of their members in any given election and only one-third of the senate is elected every two years.

This ensures that there is not a massive shift in power in any given elections. "The delegates believed that the masses should have a very limited role in the selection of their governors." (Text, pg. 55) Also, if there is a representative in a government position who the elite or the masses dislike they could prevent them from getting re-elected.

This process keeps the majority of powers in the hands of the elite because they get to control not only whom the people indirectly elect but also whom they directly elect. The framers knew that the even the elite had to be restricted at some point, if not be the people by their fellow influential, selected few, to prevent the government from shifting from a government elite to a tyranny. Therefore, you can conclude that the politicians in the government were power hungry. Separation of powers and checks and balances are two factions. The first step in forming a new government was keeping the powers of government out of the hands of the masses and into the hands of the elite. The second step was making sure even the elite did not get out of control with all of their newfound power.

"The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands, whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, self-appointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny." (Text, pg. 63) A system of separation of powers was noted to prevent "any one branch from dominating another and becoming too powerful." (Reader, pg. 63) By giving each branch of government a check over the other two, a balance is created throughout the government giving the people a sense of relief that the government would not abuse their powers while it is leaving the major decisions regarding government within the hands of the elite. A constitution is the supreme law of the land. Because the people of the states believed that the states did not have enough power, this caused them to want a federalist system that would allow central authority, the government, and state governments to join in decisions, which would allow the masses to be heard. The court case Brown vs. Board of Education was a defining decision in federalism. "It placed the responsibility for the social and political construct of race in America squarely in the hands of the national government." (Text, pg. 77) This proves the very belief that the framers wanted to put power in the hands of the government and not in the hands of the masses. "In a federal system, the constitution is the source of political power. It establishes the parameters of power for the various governing units. The United States Constitution stipulates that power will be shared by the national and state governments." (Text, pg. 77) By giving both the national and state governments more power both the masses and the elitists have power and that's what the framers did not want.

They wanted the elitists to have all the power and the masses to have less say in the government that's why the elitists didn't want a federal system. The framers of the constitution wanted the powers of the government to be within the hands of the elite; although, they had to make it possible for the constitution to be ratified if necessary. The framers did not want the states or the government to change what they had worked so hard to create so they formed a two-step process with super majority requirements, which one must go through to ratify the constitution.

"Although these procedures made it possible to change the constitution, they clearly do not make it easy." (Text, pg. 72) The two-step process involves the Senate, the House and the State Legislature, as the amendment must first be proposed with a two-thirds House and Senate approval and then a three-fourths State Legislatures approval. The framers also made this process an elitist method by giving Congress, not the House, the power to choose which of the two processes they use. One of the most controversial issues of the convention was based on the North and South disagreeing on the subject of slaves.

It was a disagreement of authority as to how many representatives they were about to have and how much tax they had to pay. The Northern and Southern states were separated on how much they believed slaves were necessary. The southern states found them to be a crucial influence on their ability to produce goods, as they needed the cheap work force, while the northern states did not need them and did not want to have to patrol their states looking for escaped slaves. “Northern states were more inclined to limit its practice with the idea that the institution would in time be abolished.

"Southern states, however, considered it vital to their economic and political interests and were willing to dissolve the union rather than abolish slavery." (Text, pg. 60) "The economic discussion revolved around three important issues: representation, taxation and the competitive vs. non-competitive labor market." (Text, pg. 61) The framers decided to "compromise" by counting slaves as three-fifths of a person to give both states equality in what slaves counted as in taxes and representation.

With this compromise, the elitist theory was being portrayed as the government was able to be the authorities in deciding how many slaves were counted as, and were able to reduce the worth of slaved and take away their rights as people because they were believed to be ignorant. The ownership of property was conceived as a loyalty to one's nation, and therefore without ownership of land, one could not be allowed to vote. When deciding who should be eligible to vote, Madison stated that if you own property, then you have a stake in the country so you should be allowed to vote.

"Many states initially imposed property requirements that established a pattern of class voting that continues in our political process today." (Text, pg. 56) If you do not own property there is nothing stopping you from wanting to destroy the nation. This belief was the elite's reasoning behind trying to get the poor who could not afford property from voting and having a stake in government. This elitist belief prevented all women and slaves from even being eligible, and went on to prevent the poor white men from voting as well. This allowed only somewhat half-decent men to even be able to vote for who gets elected in the House. The Bill of Rights also shows the elitism of the original constitution.

"As Jefferson put it, inference was not enough. A promise that the first order of business for the new Congress would be to amend the constitution to include the liberties of the citizens had to be made to insure the ratification of the document by the required nine states." (Text, pg. 67) The Federalists might never have obtained ratification in several important states if they had not promised to support amendments to the Constitution. These amendments were written to protect individual liberties against possible unjust rule by the national government.

The Bill of Rights was an addition to the constitution to insure the rights of individuals. What the framers of the constitution did in Philadelphia when writing the constitution in 1787, was unjust in creating a government that gives them the authority to have power and rule over its citizens. Circumstances on deciding justice consist of freedom, equality and order. The only thing the constitution did propose was order. It offered order at the value of equality and freedom. The framers restrained equality and freedom from those who did not consist of the elitists. The framers wanted to keep power for themselves.

Like Madison said, “it is human nature to be ambitious and power hungry, especially so when the human is a politician. (Reader, pg. 39) The fifty-five framers were only thinking for their own best interest and what suited them and their well being. They wanted to have all the power in the government, with the citizens having no say in what the constitution nor government would consist of. The citizens had no equality because the people were based on how much property they owned or what color skin they had.

They also definitely did not have any freedom, simply because they had no say in the government. The framers did not want the citizens to have any say and wanted the people to be indirect with the government. The elitists were so power hungry that too much power was not enough for them. “Although the delegates were in Philadelphia to create a stronger nation government there was a great concern among them that concentration of power will be to "unlimited" government.” (Text, pg. 55) I believe that they were unjust in not representing the needs of the masses when sending representatives to form the constitution, which is the foundation to this nation, we live in today.

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Research Paper on Routing Algorithms

Before a message can be passed to its target, it has to be formed; the message is enveloped inside a packet, which is formed by putting the address information of the target as a header of the actual message, so that the destination of the message and its size etc. can be read before the actual message is received. The actual message is then encoded in order to lessen transmittal time. This finalized packet is what gets "pushed out of the door". Now our message is ready to be routed to its destination node. Routing is the act of moving a message from a source node or other network entity to its destination. A routing technique is a way of handling the message as it passes through individual nodes. A routing algorithm is a rule set for determining where to send a message next. There are several routing techniques used by entities accessing the Internet lets explore some of these routing techniques and algorithms. Dijkstra's least cost algorithm finds all possible paths between two locations. After identifying all possible paths, it also identifies the least cost path. The algorithm can be applied to determine the least cost path between any pair of nodes; this is the basic principal of routing messages. Lets examine some interesting and notable aspects of routing.

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E-cube routing A message routing algorithm used on binary hypercubes. Hypercube is a topology used by early American multiprocessors where each node is the vertex of a d-Dimensional cube. If <|Sn-1...S0|> and <|Dn-1...D0|> are the binary co-ordinates of the source and destination of the message, and <|Xn-1...X0>| their difference, then the e-cube algorithm routes the message along links parallel to the axes corresponding to 1's in <|Xn-1...X0|>, in order from highest to lowest. In a hypercube, e-cube routing (or dimension-order routing) routes a message from source to destination by traversing the differing dimensions in right-to-left order (or left-to-right: the specific order is irrelevant, as long as all routers use the same ordering). All edges of the hypercube are viewed as being 2 links, one in each direction.

Interval routing - A routing algorithm that assigns an integer identifier to each possible destination and then labels the outgoing links of each node with a single contiguous interval or window so that a message can be routed simply by sending it out the link in whose interval its destination identifier falls. Linear Interval Routing is a space-efficient routing method for point-to-point communication networks. It is a restricted variant of Interval Routing where the routing range associated with every link is represented by an interval with no wrap-around. Interval routing is a space-efficient routing scheme; this scheme is attractive because of its simplicity. Interval routing is one among several compact routing techniques for distributed networks. An interval routing scheme substantially reduces the space requirements of routers in the network provided the nodes and the edges of the network together admit an interval labeling scheme: the scheme essentially determines the precise route taken by a message from a source to a destination in the network.

Metropolis routing - A routing algorithm for meshes, in which an ordering is imposed on axes, and messages are sent as far along the most significant axis as they need to go, then as far along the next most significant axis, and so on until they reach their destination. A mesh is that topology in which nodes form a regular acyclic or open structured d-dimensional grid, and each edge is parallel to a grid axis and joins two nodes that are adjacent along that axis. The architecture of many multicomputers is a two or three-dimensional mesh; each node represents a point on the mesh, and the edges define the neighbors of a node.

Virtual cut-through routing - A technique for routing messages in which the head and tail of the message both proceed as rapidly as possible. If the head is blocked because a link it wants to cross is being used by some other message, the tail continues to advance, and the message's contents are put into buffers on intermediate nodes for reassembly later at the destination entity. Virtual cut-through routing reserves no resources in advance and breaks up the packet into several smaller chunks; the pieces of the packet are then transmitted one by one. The virtual cut-through routing scheme has the distinct advantage of not wasting allocated resources. This scheme does however require the use of large buffers to hold the entire packet. This technique addresses the flow control needs of routing.

Wormhole routing - A technique for routing messages in which the head of the message establishes a path, which is reserved for the message until the tail has passed through it. Unlike virtual cut-through routing, the tail proceeds at a rate dictated by the progress of the head, which reduces the demand for intermediate buffering but also slows overall data transmission rate. In wormhole routing, packets are divided into smaller parts of equal size called flits, which are then transmitted one by one, instead of transmitting the packet as a whole. All the flits of the same packet follow the same path and cannot overtake each other. Nodes on the packets path can contain only one flit of that packet and will always try to transmit it to the next node. Because the movement of the packets throught the data path resembles the movement of a worm, the packets themselves are sometimes called worms. It is also noteworthy in wormhole routing it is impossible for flits of another packet to cross the path of the current packet. This means, that even if a node is empty, flits of the other packet cannot use this node, unless the last flit of the current packet has passed it. This characteristic of wormhole routing introduces a problem called deadlock. Deadlock is the situation in which each possible activity is blocked, waiting on some other blocked activity.

Routing data is the most essential element in bringing data our home from the information superhighway. The interconnection of computers has spawned these algorithms, schemes and techniques to forward data from node to node. Without these essential ingredients the Internet would not exist.

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This is a free research paper on Routing Algorithms topic. Keep in mind that all free research papers and research proposals are taken from open sources – they are plagiarized and cannot be used as your own research project. If you need a qualitative custom research paper on Routing Algorithms for college, university, Master's or PhD degree – you are welcome to contact professional research paper writing company to have your paper written online by academic research writers.

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